P. Beerli and . Felsensteinj, Maximum-likelihood estimation of migration rates and effective population numhers in two populations using a coalescent approach, Gmetics, vol.152, pp.763-773, 1999.

K. Bennet, P. Tzedakjs, and K. Willis, Quarernary refugia of North European trees, JounullofBiogeography, vol.18, pp.103-115, 1991.

G. Bertault, R. M. Berthomieu, A. Callot, and G. , Femande-z: D. 1998. Trifling variation in truffies, Nature, vol.394, issue.6695, p.734
DOI : 10.1038/29428

G. Berrault, F. Rousset, D. Fernandez, . Berthomieua, M. Hochberg et al., Population genetics and dynamics of the black truffie 111 a rltatl-rludc truffië fiëld. f.lmi:lity88, pp.451-4513, 2001.

S. Brewer, R. Cheddadi, D. Beaulieu-jl, and M. Reiue, The spread of deciduous Quercus throughout Europe since the last glacial period, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.156, issue.1-3, pp.27-48, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00646-6

!. Gnm, L. Pl, and . Ll, f Pi ~Q() ~; T"~ f? fr!ckt!gr fir f'I1t1ltil'rfri'!t~t11!d spatial anl1lysis, Version 4.0<13 -User's Manual

G. Chevalier and C. Dupré, Recherche et expérimentation sur la Truffe et la trufficulture en France, 2ndCongresso !nurnaziona!e Sul Tartufi. Spolero, lraly: Comunità Montana dei Monti Martani e dd Serano, pp.157-166, 1990.

G. Chevalier and J. Grente, Applications pratiques de la symbiose eetomycorhizienn;: produeti~n à grande 'échelle de plan~ mycorhizés par la truffe (Tuber melanosporum) Mushroom Science X, pp.483-505, 1978.

M. Clement, D. Posada, and K. Crandall, TCS: a compurer prograrn ro estimate gene geneaJogies, Mo!ecular Ecowgy, vol.9, pp.1657-1659, 2000.

H. Cornes and ]. W. Kadereit, The effect ofQuaternary c1imatic changes on planr distribution and evolution, Trends in Plant Scima, vol.3, pp.432-438, 1998.

K. Crandall, Multiple interspecies transmissions of human and simian T-cellieukemia!lyrnphoma virus type l sequences, Mo!ecular Biowgy and Evolution, vol.13, pp.115-131, 1996.

M. Cruzan and A. Templeton, Paleoecology and coalescence: phylogeographic analysis of hypotheses from the fossil record, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.15, issue.12, pp.491-496, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0169-5347(00)01998-4

J. Delmas, Tuber spp The biowgy and cultivation ofedib!e mushrooms, pp.645-681, 1978.

. Excoffier-t, P. Smouse, and J. Quarno, Ànalysis of mo!ecular variance inferred from metric distances among DNA haplorypes: application ro human mirochondrial DNA restriction dara, Gmetics, vol.131, pp.479-491, 1992.

. Gandeboeufd, C. Dupré, P. Roecket-drevel, P. Nicolas, and C. G. , Grouping and identification of Tuber species using RAPD markers, CanadianJounull, vol.75, pp.36-45, 1997.

A. Ganley and B. Scott, Concerted Evolution in the Ribosomal RNA Genes of an Epichlo?? Endophyte Hybrid: Comparison between Tandemly Arranged rDNA and Dispersed 5S rrn Genes, Fungal Genetics and Biology, vol.35, issue.1, pp.39-51, 2002.
DOI : 10.1006/fgbi.2001.1309

I. Hall, W. Yun, and A. Amicuccî, Cultivation of edible eetomycorrhizal mushsooms, Trends àl Biouch,rology, vol.21, pp.433-438, 2003.

B. Henrion, C. G. Martin, and F. , Typing truffle species by PCR amplification of the ribosomal DNA spacers, Mycological Research, vol.98, issue.1, pp.37-43, 1994.
DOI : 10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80333-X

G. Hewitt, Some genetic consequences of ice ages, and their role in divergence and speciation, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, vol.11, issue.3, pp.247-276, 1996.
DOI : 10.1006/mpev.1993.1028

G. Hewitt, Post-glacial re-colonization of European biota, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, vol.125, issue.1-2, pp.87-112, 1999.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1601-5223.1996.00097.x

. Heyj and C. Machado, The study ofstructured populations -new hope for a difficult and divided science, NIltU'ft Rtvitws Gfflttics, vol.4, pp.535-543, 2003.

D. Hutchison and A. Templeton, Correlation of pairwise genetic and geographic distance measures: inferring the relative influences ofgene f10w and drift on the distribution ofgeneticvariabiliry, Evolution, vol.53, pp.189-1914, 1999.

T. James, J. Moncalvo, S. Li, and R. Vdgalys, Polyrnorphism at the DNA spacers and its relation co breeding structure of the widespread mushroom Schizophy, Genrtics, vol.157, pp.149-161, 2001.

L. Knowles and W. Maddison, Statistical phylogeography, Molecular Ecology, vol.54, issue.12, pp.2623-2635, 2002.
DOI : 10.1007/978-3-0348-8948-3_8

F. Martin, J. Diez, B. Dell, and C. Delaruelle, Phylogeography of the ectomycorrhizal Pisolithus species as inferred from nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS sequences, New Phytologist, vol.9, issue.2, pp.345-358, 2002.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.01021.x

R. Petit, J. Aguinagalde, D. Beaulieu, J. Bittkau, C. Brewer et al., Glacial Refugia: Hotspots But Not Melting Pots of Genetic Diversity, Science, vol.300, issue.5625, 2003.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1083264

R. Petit, S. Brewer, S. Bordacs, K. Burg, R. Cheddadhi et al., Identification of refugia and post-glacial colonisation routes of European white oaks based on chloroplast DNA and fossil pollen evidence, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.156, issue.1-3, pp.49-74, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00634-X

R. Petit and D. Grivet, Optimal randomization strategies when testing the existence of a phylogeographic structure, Gmetics, vol.161, pp.469-471, 2002.

R. Petit, C. Latouche-hallé, M. Pemonge, and A. Kremer, Chloroplast DNA variation of oaks in France and the influence offorest fragmentation on genetic diversity, Forert Ecology andManagemmt, vol.156, pp.115-129, 2002.

. Pons-0 and R. Petit, Measuring and testing genetic differentiation with ordered versus unordered al1e1es, Gmetics, vol.144, pp.1237-1245, 1996.

D. Posada, Tertinggeographic association -Chiperm, version 2.1, 2000.

D. Posada, K. Crandall, and A. Templeton, GeoDis: a program for the cladistic nested analysis of the geographical distribution of genetic haplotypes, Molecular Ecology, vol.140, issue.4, pp.487-488, 2000.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-294x.1998.00308.x

M. Rodriguez-lanetty and O. Hoegh-guldberg, The phylogeography and connectivity of latitudinal1y widespread sceractinian coral P!esiastrea vmipora in the western Pacifie, Molecular Ecology, vol.Il, pp.1177-1189, 2002.

F. Rousset, Genetic differentiation and estimation of gene Bow from F-sratistics under isolation by distance, Gmetics, vol.145, pp.1219-1228, 1997.

S. Schneider, D. Roessli, and L. Excoffier, ARLEQUIN, Version 2.001: a softwarefOr population gmetics data analysis, 2000.

J. Seddon, F. Santueci, N. Reeve, and G. Hewin, DNA footprints of European hedgehogs, Erinaceus europaeus and E. concolor: Pleistocene refugia, postglacial expansion and colonization routes, Molecular Ecology, vol.128, issue.9, pp.2187-2198, 2001.
DOI : 10.1023/A:1021902125382

M. Slatkin, A measure of population subdivision based on microsatellite allele frequences, Genetics, vol.139, pp.457-462, 1995.

S. Smith and D. Read, Mycorrhizal symbioris, 1997.

D. Swofford, PAUP: Phylogenetic analysis usingparsimony (and other methods), Version 4.08b10fOr Macintosh, 2002.

P. Taberlet, L. Fumagalli, A. Wust-saucy, and J. Cosson, Comparative phylogeography and postglacial colonjzation routes in Europe, Molecular, vol.7, pp.475-464, 2001.

A. Templeton, Nested clade analyses of phylogeographic data: testing hypotheses about gene flow and population history, Molecular Ecology, vol.7, issue.4, pp.381-397, 1998.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-294X.1997.00221.x

A. Templeton, Statistical phylogeography: methods of evaluating and minimizing inference errors, Molecular Ecology, vol.11, issue.0, pp.789-809, 2004.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1420-9101.2001.00261.x

A. Templeton, E. Routman, and C. Phillips, Separating population structure from population hisrory: a c1adistic analysis of the geographjcal distribution of mitochondrial DNA haplotypes in the tiger salamander, Ambystorna tigrinum, Genetics, vol.140, pp.767-782, 1995.

G. Worheide, J. Hooper, and M. Degnan, Phylogeography of western pacific Leucetta chagosensis' (porifera: Calcarea) from ribosomal DNA sequences: implications for populations history and conservation of the Great Barrier ReefWorld HerirageArea (Australia) Molecular Ecology Il, pp.1753-1768, 2002.

S. Wright, Evolution and the genetics ofpopulatiom Variability within and among naturalpopulatiom, 1978.

D. K. Aanen, T. W. Kuyper, T. Boekhout, and R. F. Hoekstra, Phylogenetic Relationships in the Genus Hebeloma Based on ITS1 and 2 Sequences, with Special Emphasis on the Hebeloma crustuliniforme Complex, Mycologia, vol.92, issue.2, pp.269-281, 2000.
DOI : 10.2307/3761560

S. F. Altschul, . Madden, . Tl, A. Schaffer, J. Zhang et al., Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: a new generation of protein database search programs, Nucleic Acids Research, vol.25, issue.17, pp.3389-3402, 1997.
DOI : 10.1093/nar/25.17.3389

A. Amicucci, A. Zambonelli, G. Giomaro, L. Potenza, and V. Stocchi, Identification of ectomycorrhizal fungi of the genus Tuber by species-specific ITS primers, Molecular Ecology, vol.7, issue.3, pp.273-277, 1998.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-294X.1998.00357.x

J. B. Anderson and L. M. Kohn, Clonality in Soilborne, Plant-Pathogenic Fungi, Annual Review of Phytopathology, vol.33, issue.1, pp.369-391, 1995.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.py.33.090195.002101

S. E. Bergemann, . Miller, and . Sl, Size, distribution, and persistence of genets in local populations of the late-stage ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete, Russula brevipes, New Phytologist, vol.38, issue.2, pp.313-320, 2002.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2001.00029.x

G. Bertault, M. Raymond, A. Berthomieu, G. Callot, and D. Fernandez, Trifling variation in truffles, Nature, vol.394, issue.6695, p.734, 1998.
DOI : 10.1038/29428

G. Bertault, F. Rousset, D. Fernandez, A. Berthomieu, . Hochberg et al., Population genetics and dynamics of the black truffle in a man-made truffle field, Heredity, vol.18, issue.4, pp.451-458, 2001.
DOI : 10.1093/nar/18.22.6531

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00186382

P. Bonello, T. D. Bruns, and M. Gardes, Genetic structure of a natural population of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Suillus pungens, New Phytologist, vol.138, issue.3, pp.533-542, 1998.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1469-8137.1998.00122.x

A. Brookes, The essence of SNPs, Gene, vol.234, issue.2, pp.177-186, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1119(99)00219-X

R. Debuchy, C. , and E. , The mating types of Podospora anserina: functional analysis and sequence of fertilization domains, Mol Gen Genet, vol.233, pp.133-121, 1992.

R. Debuchy, S. Arnaise, and G. Lecellier, The matallele of Podospora anserina contains three regulatory genes required for the development of fertilized female organs, Mol Gen Genet, vol.241, pp.667-673, 1993.

A. V. Ferreira, S. Saupe, . Glass, and . Nl, Transcriptional analysis of the mt A idiomorph of Neurospora crassa identifies two genes in addition to mt A-t, Mol Gen Genet, vol.250, pp.767-774, 1996.

A. Fiore-donno, M. , and F. , Populations of ectomycorrhizal Laccaria amethystina and Xerocomus spp. show contrasting colonization patterns in a mixed forest, New Phytologist, vol.15, issue.3, pp.533-542, 2001.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2001.00029.x

G. Frizzi, G. Lalli, M. Miranda, and G. Pacioni, Intraspecific isozyme variability in Italian populations of the white truffle Tuber magnatum, Mycological Research, vol.105, issue.3, pp.365-369, 2001.
DOI : 10.1017/S0953756201003513

D. Gandeboeuf, C. Dupré, P. Roechel-drevet, P. Nicolas, C. et al., species using RAPD markers, Canadian Journal of Botany, vol.91, issue.95, pp.36-45, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0007-1536(88)80032-9

H. Gherbi, C. Delaruelle, M. Selosse, M. , and F. , High genetic diversity in a population of the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete Laccaria amethystina in a 150-year-old beech forest, Molecular Ecology, vol.38, issue.12, pp.2003-2013, 1999.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00014782

N. L. Glass and G. C. Donaldson, Development of primer sets designed for use with the PCR to amplity conserved genes from filamentous Ascomycetes, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.61, pp.1323-1330, 1995.

N. Glass, J. Grotelueschen, and R. Metzenberg, Neurospora crassa A mating-type region., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.87, issue.13, pp.4912-4916, 1990.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.87.13.4912

URL : http://www.pnas.org/content/87/13/4912.full.pdf

M. Glen, I. C. Tommerup, N. L. Bougher, O. Brien, and P. , Interspecific and intraspecific variation of ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with Eucalyptus ecosystems as revealed by ribosomal DNA PCR-RFLP, Mycological Research, vol.105, issue.7, pp.843-858, 2001.
DOI : 10.1017/S095375620100418X

A. Guidot, H. Gryta, F. Gourbière, J. C. Debaud, and R. Marmeisse, Forest habitat characteristics affect balance between sexual reproduction and clonal propagation of the ectomycorrhizal mushroom Hebeloma cylindrosporum, Oikos, vol.92, issue.1, pp.25-36, 2002.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1469-8137.1999.00504.x

T. Guillemaud, M. Raymond, G. Callot, J. C. Cleyet-marel, and D. Fernandez, Variability of nuclear and mitochondrial ribosomal DNA of a truffle species (Tuber aestivum), Mycological Research, vol.100, issue.5, pp.547-550, 1996.
DOI : 10.1016/S0953-7562(96)80007-4

K. Heiland and H. , Cortinarius Phylogeny and Possible Taxonomic Implications of ITS rDNA Sequences, Mycologia, vol.92, issue.4, pp.694-710
DOI : 10.2307/3761427

J. L. Jany, J. Garbaye, M. , and F. , Genococcum geophilum populations show a high degree of genetic diversity in beech forests, pp.651-659, 2002.

H. Johannesson, K. Ihrmark, and J. Stenlid, Differential decay extension capability of Daldinia spp. in wood of Betula pendula, Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.167, issue.1-3, pp.295-302, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00716-2

L. Lanfranco, S. Perotto, and P. Bonfante, Applications of PCR for studying the biodiversity of mycorrhizal fungi, In Applications of PGR in Mycology. Bridge CABI, vol.6, pp.107-124, 1998.

D. Mabru, C. Dupré, J. P. Douet, P. Leroy, C. Ravel et al., Rapid molecular typing method for the reliable detection of Asiatic black truffle ( Tuber indicum ) in commercialized products: fruiting bodies and mycorrhizal seedlings, Mycorrhiza, vol.11, issue.2, pp.89-94, 2001.
DOI : 10.1007/s005720100103

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00964256

A. Mello, C. Nosenzo, F. Meotto, and P. Bonfante, Rapid typing of truffle mycorrhizal roots by PCR amplification of the ribosomal DNA spacers, Mycorrhiza, vol.6, issue.5, pp.417-421, 1996.
DOI : 10.1007/s005720050141

A. Mello, L. Garnero, and P. Bonfante, Specifie PCRprimers as a reliable tool for the detection of white truttles in mycorrhizal roots, pp.511-516, 1999.

A. Mello, A. Vizzini, S. Longato, F. Rollo, P. Bonfante et al., Tuber borchii versus Tuber maculatum: Neotype Studies and DNA Analyses, Mycologia, vol.92, issue.2, pp.326-333, 2000.
DOI : 10.2307/3761569

A. Mello, A. Fontana, F. Meotto, O. Comandini, and P. Bontante, Molecular and morphological characterization of Tuber magnatum mycorrhizas in a long-term survey, Microbiological Research, vol.155, issue.4, pp.279-284, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0944-5013(01)80005-7

A. Mello, A. Cantisani, A. Vizzini, and P. Bonfante, Genetic variability of Tuber uncinatum and its relatedness to other black truffles, Environmental Microbiology, vol.90, issue.10, pp.584-594, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/B978-0-12-372180-8.50042-1

C. Murat, J. Diez, P. Luis, C. Delaruelle, C. Dupré et al., Polymorphism at the ribosomal DNA ITS and its relation to post-glacial recolonization routes of the Perigord truffle Tuber melanosporum, pp.401-411, 2004.

M. Nelson, Mating systems in ascomycetes: a romp in the sac, Trends in Genetics, vol.12, issue.2, pp.69-74, 1996.
DOI : 10.1016/0168-9525(96)81403-X

S. Pëggeler, Mating-type genes for c1assical strain improvements of ascomycetes, Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, vol.56, pp.589-601, 2001.

C. R. Primmer, T. Borge, J. Lindell, and G. P. Saetre, Single-nucleotide polymorphism characterization in species with limited available sequence information: high nucleotide diversity revealed in the avian genome, Molecular Ecology, vol.107, issue.3, pp.603-612, 2002.
DOI : 10.1083/jcb.107.6.2729

D. Redecker, T. M. Szaro, J. R. Bowman, and T. D. Bruns, Small genets of Lactarius xanthogalactus, Russula cremaricolor and Amanita francheti in late stage ectomycorrhizal successions, Mol Eco, vol.0, issue.1, pp.1025-1034, 2001.

A. Rubini, F. Topini, C. Riccioni, F. Paolocci, and S. Arcioni, Isolation and characterization of polymorphic microsatellite loci in white truffle (Tuber magnatum), Molecular Ecology Notes, vol.11, issue.1, pp.116-118, 2004.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1471-8286.2004.00587.x

M. Selosse, M. Weiss, J. L. Jany, and A. Tillier, Communities and populations of sebacinoid basidiomycetes associated with the achlorophyllous orchid Neottia nidus-avis (L.) L.C.M. Rich. and neighbouring tree ectomycorrhizae, Molecular Ecology, vol.73, issue.9, pp.1831-1844, 2002.
DOI : 10.1139/b95-094

O. Soubabere, V. Jorge, J. L. Notteghem, M. H. Lebrun, and D. Tharreau, Sequence characterized amplified region markers for the rice blast fungus, Magnaporthe grisea, Molecular Ecology Notes, vol.8, issue.1-2, pp.19-21, 2001.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.phyto.36.1.249

C. Staben, Y. , and C. , Neurospora crassa a mating-type region., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.87, issue.13, pp.4917-4921, 1990.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.87.13.4917

M. I. Tenaillon, M. C. Sawkins, A. D. Long, R. L. Gaut, J. F. Doebley et al., Patterns of DNA sequence polymorphism along chromosome 1 of maize (Zea mays ssp. mays L.), Proc Nat! Acad Sci, pp.9161-9166, 2001.
DOI : 10.1038/10290

Y. J. Timothy, J. M. Moncalvo, S. Li, and R. Vilgalys, Polymorphism at the ribosomal DNA spacers and its relation to breeding structure of the widespread mushroom Schizophyl/um commune, Genetics, vol.157, pp.149-161, 2001.

A. Vizzini, Relazioni filogenetiche dei genere Tuber (Tuberaceae) nell'ambito dell'ordine. Pezizales: analisi molecolari, cariologiche, macro· e micromortologiche. Tesi Dottorato XIV ciclo, 2001.

T. J. White, T. Bruns, S. Lee, T. , and J. , AMPLIFICATION AND DIRECT SEQUENCING OF FUNGAL RIBOSOMAL RNA GENES FOR PHYLOGENETICS, PCR Protocols. A Guide to Methods and Applications, pp.315-322, 1990.
DOI : 10.1016/B978-0-12-372180-8.50042-1

Z. H. Yan, S. O. Rogers, W. , and C. J. , Assessment of Phialophora Species Based on Ribosomal DNA Internal Transcribed Spacers and Morphology, Mycologia, vol.87, issue.1, pp.72-83, 1995.
DOI : 10.2307/3760949

Z. Zhou, M. Miwa, and T. Hogetsu, Analysis of genetic structure of a Suillus gevillei populations in a Larix kaempferi stand by polymorphism of inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR), pp.55-63, 1999.

Z. Zhou, M. Miwa, and T. Hogetsu, Genet Distribution of Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Suillus grevillei Populations in Two Larix kaempferi Stands over Two Years, Journal of Plant Research, vol.113, issue.4, pp.365-374, 2000.
DOI : 10.1007/PL00013944

P. Bonello, T. D. Bruns, and M. Gardes, Genetic structure of a natural population of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Suillus pungens, New Phytologist, vol.138, issue.3, pp.533-542, 1998.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1469-8137.1998.00122.x

F. Buscot, Ectomycorrhizal types and endobacteria associated with ectomycorrhizas of Morchella elata (Fr.) Boudier with Picea abies (L.) Karst, Mycorrhiza, vol.4, issue.5, pp.223-232, 1994.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00206784

F. Buscot, The association of Morchella rotunda (Pers.) Boudier with roots of Picea abies (L.) Karst, New Phytologist, vol.3, issue.3, pp.425-430, 1990.
DOI : 10.1016/S0022-5320(69)90033-1

G. Chevalier and J. Grente, Application pratique de la symbiose ectomyCOrhlZienne : production à grande échelle de plants mycorhizés par la truffe, Mushr. Sci, vol.10, issue.2, pp.483-505, 1979.

G. Chevalier and H. Frochot, La truffe de Bourgogne, p.257, 1997.

E. Corner, A Monograph of Thelephora (Basidiomycetes) Beihefte zur, Nova Hedwigia, vol.27, pp.1-110, 1968.

A. Dahlberg, L. Jonsson, and J. E. Nylund, Species diversity and distribution of biomass above and below ground among ectomycorrhizal fungi in an old-growth Norway spruce forest in south Sweden, Canadian Journal of Botany, vol.120, issue.55, pp.1323-1335, 1997.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1992.tb01798.x

D. Miguel, A. , D. Roman, M. Etayo, M. L. Danell et al., Mycorrhizal fungi competing with Tuber melanosporum Vitt In cultivated truffle beds in north-eastern Spain. Edible mycorrhizal mushrooms and their cultivation, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Edible Mycorrhizal Mushrooms, pp.3-6, 2001.

A. Fontana and G. Giovannetti, Simbiosi micorrizica fra Cistus incanus L. ssp. incanus e Tuber melanosporum Vitt, Allionia, vol.23, pp.5-11, 1978.

M. Gardes and T. Bruns, ITS primers with enhanced specificity for basidiomycetes - application to the identification of mycorrhizae and rusts, Molecular Ecology, vol.57, issue.2, pp.113-118, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/B978-0-12-372180-8.50042-1

M. Gardes and T. Bruns, forest: above- and below-ground views, Canadian Journal of Botany, vol.129, issue.10, pp.1572-1583, 1996.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1995.tb04309.x

C. Gehring, T. Theimer, T. Whitham, and P. Keim, ECTOMYCORRHIZAL FUNGAL COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF PINYON PINES GROWING IN TWO ENVIRONMENTAL EXTREMES, Ecology, vol.79, issue.5, pp.1562-1572, 1998.
DOI : 10.1126/science.228.4703.1089

M. Glen, I. Tommerup, N. Bougher, O. Brien, and P. , Are Sebacinaceae common and widespread ectomycorrhizal associates of Eucalyptus species in Australian forests, Mycorrhiza, vol.12, issue.5, pp.243-247, 2002.

T. Hallingbâck and G. Aronsson, Macrofungi and myxomycetes in Sweden and their ecology, 1998.

B. Henrion, G. Chevalier, and &. F. Martin, Typing truffle species by PCR amplification of the ribosomal DNA spacers, Mycological Research, vol.98, issue.1, pp.37-43, 1994.
DOI : 10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80333-X

T. Jonsson, S. Kokalj, R. Finley, and S. Erland, Ectomycorrhizal community structure in a limed spruce forest, Mycological Research, vol.103, issue.4, pp.501-508, 1999.
DOI : 10.1017/S0953756298007461

D. Karen, N. Hogberg, A. Dahlberg, L. Jonsson, and J. Nylund, Inter- and intraspecific variation in the ITS region of rDNA of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Fennoscandia as detected by endonuclease analysis, New Phytologist, vol.136, issue.2, pp.313-325, 1997.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1469-8137.1997.00742.x

U. Koljalg, Tomentella (Basidiomycota) and related genera in temperate Eurasia, Synopsis Fungorum 9, 1996.

U. K61jalg, A. F. Dahlberg, E. Taylor, N. Larsson, J. Hallenberg et al., Diversity and abundance of resupinate thelephoroid fungi as ectomycorrhizal symbionts in Swedish boreal forests, Molecular Ecology, vol.9, issue.12, pp.1-1, 2000.

M. Larsen, The genus Pseudotomentella (Basidiomycetes, Thelephoraceae s.str.) Nova Hedwigia, pp.599-619, 1971.

M. Larsen, A contribution to the taxonomy of the genus Tomentella, Mycologia Memoirs, vol.4, pp.1-145, 1974.

L. Tacon, F. , J. Garbaye, D. Bouchard, G. Chevalier et al., Field result from ectomycorrhizal inoculation in France, Canadian workshop on Mycorrhizal in Forestry, pp.51-74, 1988.

D. Mabru, C. Dupré, J. P. Douet, P. Leroy, C. Ravel et al., Rapid molecular typing method for the reliable detection of Asiatic black truffle ( Tuber indicum ) in commercialized products: fruiting bodies and mycorrhizal seedlings, Mycorrhiza, vol.11, issue.2, pp.89-94, 2001.
DOI : 10.1007/s005720100103

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00964256

R. Marmeisse, A. Guidot, G. Gay, R. Lambilliotte, H. Sentenac et al., Hebeloma cylindrosporum- a model species to study ectomycorrhizal symbiosis from gene to ecosystem, New Phytologist, vol.114, issue.3, pp.481-498, 2004.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1469-8137.1999.00504.x

A. Mello, C. Murat, A. Vizzini, V. Gavazza, and P. Bonfante, Tuber magnatum Pico, a species of Iimited geographic distribution: its genetic diversity inside and outside a truffle ground, Environmental Microbiology, 2004.

A. Mello, A. Fontana, F. Meotto, O. Comandini, and P. Bonfante, Molecular and morphological characterization of Tuber magnatum mycorrhizas in a long-term survey, Microbiological Research, vol.155, issue.4, pp.279-284, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0944-5013(01)80005-7

R. Molina, H. Massicotte, and J. Trappe, Specificity phenomena in mycorrhizal symbiosis community -ecological consequences and pratical implications, pp.357-423, 1992.

F. Paolocci, A. Rubini, B. Granetti, and S. Arcioni, Rapid molecular approach for a reliable identification of Tuber spp. ectomycorrhizae, FEMS Microbiology Ecology, vol.21, issue.1, pp.23-30, 1999.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1574-6941.1999.tb00557.x

K. Pritsch, H. Boyle, J. Munch, and F. Buscot, Characterization and identification of black alder ectomycorrhizas by PCR/RFLP analyses of the rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS), New Phytologist, vol.137, issue.2, pp.357-369, 1997.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1469-8137.1997.00806.x

L. Rossi, L. Bertini, A. Amicucci, M. Cecchini, L. Gregori et al., Study of a natural Tuber magnatum Pico truffière in central Italy. Edible mycorrhizal mushrooms and their cultivation, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Edible Mycorrhizal Mushrooms, pp.3-6, 2001.

A. Rubini, F. Paolocci, B. Granetti, and S. Arcioni, Morphological characterization of molecular-typed Tuber magnatum ectomycorrhizae, Mycorrhiza, vol.11, issue.4, pp.179-185, 2001.
DOI : 10.1007/s005720100116

M. Selosse, R. Bauer, and B. Moyersoen, Basal hymenomycetes belonging to the Sebacinaceae are ectomycorrhizal on temperate deciduous trees, New Phytologist, vol.89, issue.423, pp.183-195, 2002.
DOI : 10.2307/3761073

S. Smith and D. Read, Mycorrhizal Symbiosis, 1997.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01268065

J. E. Selnsteb0, Molecular Ecology of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi on 8istorta vivipara in four alpine tundra communities, 2002.

J. Stalpers, The Aphyllophoraceous fungi 1. Keys to the species of the Thelephorales, Studies in Mycology, vol.35, pp.1-168, 1993.

A. Taylor, Fungal diversity in ectomycorrhizal communities: sampling effort and species detection, Plant and Soil, vol.244, pp.19-28, 2002.
DOI : 10.1007/978-94-017-1284-2_3

D. Taylor and T. Bruns, Community structure of ectomycorrhizal fungi in a Pinus muricata forest: minimal overlap between the mature forest and resistant propagule communities, Molecular Ecology, vol.129, issue.11, pp.1837-1850, 1999.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1995.tb04309.x

A. Urban, M. Wei~, and R. Bauer, Ectomycorrhizas involving sebacinoid mycobionts, Mycological Research, vol.107, issue.1, pp.3-14, 2003.
DOI : 10.1017/S0953756202007116

S. Urbanelli, P. Sallicandro, D. Vito, E. Bullini, L. Palenzona et al., Identification of Tuber Mycorrhizae Using Multilocus Electrophoresis, Mycologia, vol.90, issue.3, pp.389-395, 1998.
DOI : 10.2307/3761397

. Weir and F. Oberwinkler, Phylogenetic relationships in Auriculariales and related groups hypotheses derived fram nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences, Mycological Researh, vol.105, pp.403-415, 2001.

T. J. White, T. D. Bruns, S. B. Lee, and J. W. Taylor, AMPLIFICATION AND DIRECT SEQUENCING OF FUNGAL RIBOSOMAL RNA GENES FOR PHYLOGENETICS, PCR Protocols : a Guide to Methods and Applications, pp.315-322, 1990.
DOI : 10.1016/B978-0-12-372180-8.50042-1

A. Zambonelli, M. Giomaro, G. Stocchi, V. Danell, and E. , T. borchii cultivation : an interesting perspective. Edible mycorrhizal mushrooms and their cultivation, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Edible Mycorrhizal Mushrooms, pp.3-6, 2001.

G. Bertault, M. Raymond, A. Berthomieu, G. Callot, and D. Fernandez, Trifting variation in trufftes, Nature, vol.394, issue.6695, p.734, 1998.
DOI : 10.1038/29428

G. Bertault, F. Rousset, D. Fernandez, A. Berthomieu, M. E. Hochberg et al., Population genetics and dynamics of the black truffle in a man-made truffle field, Heredity, vol.18, issue.4, pp.451-458, 2001.
DOI : 10.1093/nar/18.22.6531

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00186382

D. D. Brown, P. C. Wensink, and E. Jordan, A comparison of the ribosomal DNA's of Xenopus laevis and Xenopus mulleri: the evolution of tandem genes, Journal of Molecular Biology, vol.63, issue.1, pp.57-73, 1972.
DOI : 10.1016/0022-2836(72)90521-9

D. Miguel, A. De-roman, M. Etayo, M. Danell, and E. , Mycorrhizal fungi competing with Tuber melanosporum Vitt In cultivated truffte beds in north-eastern Spain. Edible mycorrhizal mushrooms and their cultivation, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Edible Mycorrhizal Mushrooms, pp.3-6, 2001.

J. P. Douet, M. Castroviejo, D. Mabru, G. Chevalier, C. Dupre et al., Rapid molecular typing of Tuber melanosporum, T. brumale and T. indicum trom tree seedlings and canned trufftes, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, vol.379, issue.4, pp.668-673, 2004.

G. Dover, Molecular drive: a cohesive mode of species evolution, Nature, vol.26, issue.5879, pp.111-117, 1982.
DOI : 10.1017/S0094837300005224

J. F. Eider and B. J. Turner, Concerted evolution of repetitive DNA sequences in eukaryotes, Quart. Rev. Biol, vol.70, pp.297-320, 1995.

G. Frizzi, G. Lalli, M. Miranda, and G. Pacioni, Intraspecific isozyme variability in Italian populations of the white truffle Tuber magnatum, Mycological Research, vol.105, issue.3, pp.365-369, 2001.
DOI : 10.1017/S0953756201003513

D. Gandeboeuf, C. Dupré, P. Roeckel-drevet, P. Nicolas, and G. Chevalier, ectomycorrhizae by polymerase chain amplification of the internal transcribed spacer of rDNA and the sequence characterized amplified region markers, Canadian Journal of Microbiology, vol.91, issue.8, pp.723-728, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0007-1536(88)80032-9

M. Glen, I. Tommerup, N. Bougher, O. Brien, and P. , Are Sebacinaceae common and widespread ectomycorrhizal associates of Eucalyptus species in Australian forests, Mycorrhiza, vol.12, issue.5, pp.243-247, 2002.

M. Glen, I. C. Tommerup, N. L. Bougher, and P. O-'brien, Interspecific and intraspecific variation of ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with Eucalyptus ecosystems as revealed by ribosomal DNA PCR-RFLP, Mycological Research, vol.105, issue.7, pp.643-656, 2001.
DOI : 10.1017/S095375620100418X

A. Guidot, J. C. Debaud, A. Effosse, and R. Marmeisse, Below-ground distribution and persistence of an ectomycorrhizal fungus, New Phytologist, vol.17, issue.2, pp.539-547, 2004.
DOI : 10.1007/PL00013981

A. Guidot, J. C. Debaud, and R. Marmeisse, Correspondence between genet diversity and spatial distribution of above- and below-ground populations of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Hebeloma cylindrosporum, Molecular Ecology, vol.4, issue.5, pp.1121-1131, 2001.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1469-8137.1999.00504.x

A. Guidot, J. C. Debaud, and R. Marmeisse, Spatial distribution of the below-ground mycelia of an ectomycorrhizal fungus inferred from specific quantification of its DNA in soil samples, FEMS Microbiology Ecology, vol.10, issue.3, pp.477-486, 2002.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1439-0329.2001.00243.x

G. M. Hewitt and R. G. Harrison, Hybrid zones and Evolutionary Process The genetic legacy of the Quaternary ice ages, Nature, vol.405, pp.140-164, 1993.

T. R. Horton and T. D. Bruns, The molecular revolution in ectomycorrhizal ecology: peeking into the black-box, Molecular Ecology, vol.144, issue.8, pp.1855-1871, 2001.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1469-8137.1999.00504.x

T. Y. James, J. M. Moncalvo, S. Li, and R. Vilgalys, Polymorphism at the DNA spacers and its relation to breeding structure of the widespread mushroom Schizophyllum commune, Genetics, vol.157, pp.149-161, 2001.

T. Jonsson, S. Kokalj, R. Finley, and S. Erland, Ectomycorrhizal community structure in a limed spruce forest, Mycological Research, vol.103, issue.4, pp.501-508, 1999.
DOI : 10.1017/S0953756298007461

R. Landeweert, P. Leeftang, T. W. Kuyper, E. Hofftand, A. Rosling et al., Molecular Identification of Ectomycorrhizal Mycelium in Soil Horizons, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol.69, issue.1, pp.327-333, 2003.
DOI : 10.1128/AEM.69.1.327-333.2003

L. Lanfranco, P. Wyss, C. Marzachi, and P. Bonfante, Pico, FEMS Microbiology Letters, vol.2, issue.3, pp.245-270, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/B978-0-12-168050-3.50036-0

M. Larsen, The genus Pseudotomentella (Basidiomycetes, Thelephoraceae s.str.) Nova Hedwigia, pp.599-619, 1971.

L. Quéré and A. , Genome and Transcriptome Ana/yzes in the Ectomycorrhiza/ Fungus Paxillus invo/utus, 2004.

A. J. Gillies, A. , G. M. Wilsqn, <. , and I. K. 2qqo, GanservatiQn genetills llf tlush mangll fram llentral/wes.t Afrilla; implications from random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis, Molecular Ecology, vol.9, issue.7, pp.831-841

D. Mabru, C. Dupré, J. P. Douet, P. Leroy, C. Ravel et al., Rapid molecular typing method for the reliable detection of Asiatic black truffle ( Tuber indicum ) in commercialized products: fruiting bodies and mycorrhizal seedlings, Mycorrhiza, vol.11, issue.2, pp.89-94, 2001.
DOI : 10.1007/s005720100103

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00964256

A. Mello, A. Fontana, F. Meotto, O. Comandini, and P. Bonfante, Molecular and morphological characterization of T. magnaf'Jm mycorrhiza~ in a Icng;t~rm ~urv~y, Microbicl R~~, vol.155, pp.279-284, 2001.

C. Murat, Etude de la diversité génétique de la Truffe noire du Périgord (Tuber me/anosporum Vittad.). Diplôme d'Etude Approfondie, 2001.

F. Paolocci, A. Rubini, C. Riccioni, F. Topini, and S. Arcioni, : two morphotypes or two species?, FEMS Microbiology Letters, vol.37, issue.10, pp.109-115, 2004.
DOI : 10.1099/00221287-148-5-1253

URL : https://academic.oup.com/femsle/article-pdf/235/1/109/19114873/235-1-109.pdf

B. Îlrltin, Wftiiliiii-iliii:! &ètWèèii-iiiaiiiiaüill sèqüèiiêè vilriiltioii ilmoiig IT61 êôpiès iii iliè mèilaoif,i grilsslioppèr Chorthippus parallelus indicates frequent intrachromosomal gene conversion, Molecular biology and evolution, vol.21, issue.8, pp.1595-1601, 2004.

T. E. Pawlowska and T. J. , Organization of genetic variation in individuals of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, Nature, vol.370, issue.6976, pp.733-737, 2004.
DOI : 10.1038/370213a0

R. Petit, C. J-"-latouche-hailé, M. H. Pemonge, and A. Kremer, Chloroplast DNA variation of oaks in France and the influence oHorest fragmentatlon on genetlc diversity, Forest Ëcoiogy and Management, vol.1, issue.5, pp.11-29, 2002.

R. Petit, S. Brewer, /. Bordacs, D. Mabru, J. P. Douet et al., Identification of refugia and post-glacial colonisation routes of European white oaks based on chloroplast DNA and fossil pollen evidence, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.156, issue.1-3, pp.49-7433, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00634-X

R. Petit, D. Beaulieu, and J. , Glacial Refugia: Hotspots But Not Melting Pots of Genetic Diversity, Science, vol.300, issue.5625, pp.1563-1565, 2003.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1083264

L. Rossi, L. Bertini, A. Amicucci, M. Cecchini, L. @bullet-gregori et al., Study of a natural Tuber magnatum Pico truffière in centralltaly. Edible mycorrhizal mushrooms and their cultivation, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Edible Mycorrhizal Mushrooms, pp.3-6, 2001.

C. Roux, N. Séjalon-delmas, M. Martins, A. Parguey-leduc, R. Dargent et al., Phylogenetic relationships between European and Chinese truffles based on parsimony and distance analysis of ITS sequences, FEMS Microbiology Letters, vol.164, issue.2, pp.147-155, 1999.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1998.tb13060.x

A. Rubini, F. Topini, C. Riccioni, . Paoloccif, and S. Arcioni, Isolation and characterization of polymorphic microsatellite loci in white truffle (Tuber magnatum), Molecular Ecology Notes, vol.11, issue.1, pp.116-118, 2004.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1471-8286.2004.00587.x

F. Santuccl, B. G. Emerson, and G. M. Hewitt, Mitochondrial DNA phylogeography of European hedgehogs, Molecular Ecology, vol.7, issue.9, pp.1163-1172, 1998.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-294x.1998.00436.x

J. M. Seddon, F. Sa-ntu-cci, N. J. Reeve, and G. M. Hewitt, DNA footprints of European hedgehogs, Erinaceus europaeus and E. concolor: Pleistocene refugia, postglacial expansion and colonization routes, Molecular Ecology, vol.128, issue.9, pp.2187-2198, 2001.
DOI : 10.1023/A:1021902125382

M. Selosse, R. Bauer, and B. Moyersoen, Basal hymenomycetes belonging to the Sebacinaceae are ectomycorrhizal on temperate deciduous trees, New Phytologist, vol.89, issue.423, pp.183-195, 2002.
DOI : 10.2307/3761073

W. T. Sinclair, J. D. Morman, and R. Ennos, L.) in western Europe: evidence from mitochondrial DNA variation, Molecular Ecology, vol.6, issue.1, pp.83-88, 1999.
DOI : 10.1080/02827588609382403

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00823557

S. Smith and D. Read, Mycorrhizal Symbiosis, 1997.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01268065

D. Taylor and T. Bruns, Community structure of ectomycorrhizal fungi in a Pinus muricata forest: minimal overlap between the mature forest and resistant propagule communities, Molecular Ecology, vol.129, issue.11, pp.1837-1850, 1999.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1995.tb04309.x

A. Urban, M. Wei~, and R. Bauer, Ectomycorrhizas involving sebacinoid mycobionts, Mycological Research, vol.107, issue.1, pp.3-14, 2003.
DOI : 10.1017/S0953756202007116

S. Vollmer and S. Palumbi, Testing the utility of internally transcribed spacer sequences in coral phylogenetics, Molecular Ecology, vol.11, issue.9, pp.2763-2790, 2004.
DOI : 10.1007/s003380050242